LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
This page will provide information to understand the function of the lymphatic system and our body's immune process. There are also extensive links for further research. Because of our impaired lymph system, those of us with lymphedema should be informed as to how we fight and/or resist infections and why we are so susceptible to them.
June 18, 2008
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Table of Contents
The Lymphatic System | Immunity | General Defenses | Specific
Defenses
Antibody-mediated Immunity | Blood Types, Rh, and Antibodies
Organ Transplants and Antibodies | Allergies and Disorders of
the Immune
System
The Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and
organs. The
functions of this system include the absorption of excess fluid and its
return
to the blood stream, absorption of fat (in the villi of the small
intestine) and
the immune system function.
Lymph vessels are closely associated with the circulatory system
vessels. Larger
lymph vessels are similar to veins. Lymph capillaries are scatted
throughout the
body. Contraction of skeletal muscle causes movement of the lymph fluid
through
valves.
Lymph organs include the bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus.
Bone
marrow contains tissue that produces lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes
(B-cells) mature
in the bone marrow. T-lymphocytes (T-cells) mature in the thymus gland.
Other
blood cells such as monocytes and leukocytes are produced in the bone
marrow.
Lymph nodes are areas of concentrated lymphocytes and macrophages along
the
lymphatic veins. The spleen is similar to the lymph node except that it
is
larger and filled with blood. The spleen serves as a reservoir for
blood, and
filters or purifies the blood and lymph fluid that flows through it. If
the
spleen is damaged or removed, the individual is more susceptible to
infections.
The thymus secretes a hormone, thymosin, that causes pre-T-cells to
mature (in
the thymus) into T-cells.
Immunity
Immunity is the body's capability to repel foreign substances and
cells. The
nonspecific responses are the first line of defense. Highly specific
responses
are the second line of defense and are tailored to an individual
threat. The
immune response includes both specific and nonspecific components.
Nonspecific
responses block the entry and spread of disease-causing agents.
Antibody-mediated and cell-mediated responses are two types of specific
response. The immune system is associated with defense against
disease-causing
agents, problems in transplants and blood transfusions, and diseases
resulting
from over-reaction (autoimmune, allergies) and under-reaction (AIDS).
General Defenses
Barriers to entry are the skin and mucous membranes. The skin is a
passive
barrier to infectious agents such as bacteria and viruses. The
organisms living
on the skin surface are unable to penetrate the layers of dead skin at
the
surface. Tears and saliva secrete enzymes that breakdown bacterial cell
walls.
Skin glands secrete chemicals that retard the growth of bacteria. Mucus
membranes lining the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive
tracts
secrete mucus that forms another barrier. Physical barriers are the
first line
of defense.
When microorganisms penetrate skin or epithelium lining respiratory,
digestive,
or urinary tracts, inflammation results. Damaged cells release chemical
signals
such as histamine that increase capillary blood flow into the affected
area
(causing the areas to become heated and reddened). The heat makes the
environment unfavorable for microbes, promotes healing, raises mobility
of white
blood cells, and increases the metabolic rate of nearby cells.
Capillaries pass
fluid into interstitial areas, causing the infected/injured area to
swell.
Clotting factors trigger formation of many small blood clots. Finally,
monocytes
(a type of white blood cell) clean up dead microbes, cells, and debris.
The inflammatory response is often strong enough to stop the spread of
disease-causing agents such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The
response begins
with the release of chemical signals and ends with cleanup by
monocytes. If this
is not enough to stop the invaders, the complement system and immune
response
act.
Protective proteins that are produced in the liver include the
complement system
of proteins. The complement system proteins bind to a bacterium and
open pores
in its membrane through which fluids and salt move, swelling and
bursting the
cell.
The complement system directly kills microbes, supplements inflammatory
response, and works with the immune response. It complements the
actions of the
immune system. Complement proteins are made in the liver and become
active in a
sequence (C1 activates C2, etc.). The final five proteins form a
membrane-attack
complex (MAC) that embeds itself into the plasma membrane of the
attacker. Salts
enter the invader, facilitating water to cross the membrane, swelling
and
bursting the microbe. Complement also functions in the immune response
by
tagging the outer surface of invaders for attack by phagocytes.
The complement system of proteins and their functioning. Image from
Purves et
al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com)
and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com),
used with permission.
Interferon is a species-specific chemical produced by cells that are
viral
attack. It alerts nearby cells to prepare for a virus. The cells that
have been
contacted by interferon resist all viral attacks.
Specific Defenses
The immune system also generates specific responses to specific
invaders.
The immune system is more effective than the nonspecific methods, and
has a
memory component that improves response time when an invader of the
same type
(or species) is again encountered.
Immunity results from the production of antibodies specific to a given
antigen
(antibody-generators, located on the surface of an invader). Antibodies
bind to
the antigens on invaders and kill or inactivate them in several ways.
Most
antibodies are themselves proteins or are a mix of protein and
polysaccharides.
Antigens can be any molecule that causes antibody production.
Lymphocytes
White blood cells known as lymphocytes arise from by mitosis of stem
cells in
the bone marrow. Some lymphocytes migrate to the thymus and become T
cells that
circulate in the blood and are associated with the lymph nodes and
spleen. B
cells remain in the bone marrow and develop before moving into the
circulatory
and lymph systems. B cells produce antibodies.
Antibody-mediated (humoral
immunity)
Antibody mediated (humoral) immunity is regulated by B cells and the
antibodies
they produce. Cell-mediated immunity is controlled by T cells.
Antibody-mediated
reactions defend against invading viruses and bacteria. Cell-mediated
immunity
concerns cells in the body that have been infected by viruses and
bacteria,
protect against parasites, fungi, and protozoans, and also kill
cancerous body
cells.
Antibody-mediated Immunity | Back to Top
Stages in this process are:
antigen detection
activation of helper T cells
antibody production by B cells
Each stage is directed by a specific cell type.
Macrophages
Macrophages are white blood cells that continually search for foreign
(nonself)
antigenic molecules, viruses, or microbes. When found, the macrophages
engulfs
and destroys them. Small fragments of the antigen are displayed on the
outer
surface of the macrophage plasma membrane.
Helper T Cells
Helper T cells are macrophages that become activated when they
encounter the
antigens now displayed on the macrophage surface. Activated T cells
identify and
activate B cells.
B Cells
B cells divide, forming plasma cells and B memory cells. Plasma cells
make and
release between 2000 and 20,000 antibody molecules per second into the
blood for
the next four or five days. B memory cells live for months or years,
and are
part of the immune memory system.
Antibodies
Antibodies bind to specific antigens in a lock-and-key fashion, forming
an
antigen-antibody complex. Antibodies are a type of protein molecule
known as
immunoglobulins. There are five classes of immunoglobulins: IgG, IgA,
IgD, IgE,
and IgM.
The five classes of Ig antibodies. Image from Purves et al., Life: The
Science
of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com)
and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com),
used with permission.
Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules composed of two identical long
polypeptide
(Heavy or H chains) and two identical short polypeptides (Light or L
chains).
Function of antibodies includes:
Recognition and binding to antigens
Inactivation of the antigen
A unique antigenic determinant recognizes and binds to a site on the
antigen,
leading to the destruction of the antigen in several ways. The ends of
the Y are
the antigen-combining site that is different for each antigen. Click
here to
learn more about the different classes of antibodies.
Helper T Cells
Helper T cells activate B cells that produce antibodies. Supressor T
cells slow
down and stop the immune response of B and T cells, serving as an off
switch for
the immune system. Cytotoxic (or killer) T cells destroy body cells
infected
with a virus or bacteria. Memory T cells remain in the body awaiting
the
reintroduction of the antigen.
A cell infected with a virus will display viral antigens on its plasma
membrane.
Killer T cells recognize the viral antigens and attach to that cell's
plasma
membrane. The T cells secrete proteins that punch holes in the infected
cell's
plasma membrane. The infected cell's cytoplasm leaks out, the cell
dies, and is
removed by phagocytes. Killer T cells may also bind to cells of
transplanted
organs.
The immune system is the major component of this defense. Lymphocytes,
monocytes,
lymph organs, and lymph vessels make up the system. The immune system
is able to
distinguish self from non-self. Antigens are chemicals on the surface
of a cell.
All cells have these. The immune system checks cells and identifies
them as
"self" or "non-self". Antibodies are proteins produced by
certain lymphocytes in response to a specific antigen. B-lymphocytes
and
T-lymphocytes produce the antibodies. B-lymphocytes become plasma cells
which
then generate antibodies. T-lymphocytes attack cells which bear
antigens they
recognize. They also mediate the immune response.
The immune system and memory of infections
Secondary immunity, the resistance to certain diseases after having had
them
once, results from production of Memory B and T cells during the first
exposure
to the antigen. A second exposure to the same antigen produces a more
massive
and faster response. The secondary response is the basis for
vaccination.
Vaccination
Vaccination is a term derived from the Latin vacca (cow, after the
cowpox
material used by Edward Jenner in the first vaccination). A vaccine
stimulates
the antibody production and formation of memory cells without causing
of the
disease. Vaccines are made from killed pathogens or weakened strains
that cause
antibody production but not the disease. Recombinant DNA techniques can
now be
used to develop even safer vaccines.
The immune system can develop long-term immunity to some diseases. Man
can use
this to develop vaccines, which produce induced immunity. Active
immunity
develops after an illness or vaccine. Vaccines are weakened (or killed)
viruses
or bacteria that prompt the development of antibodies. Application of
biotechnology allows development of vaccines that are the protein
(antigen)
which in no way can cause the disease. Passive immunity is the type of
immunity
when the individual is given antibodies to combat a specific disease.
Passive
immunity is short-lived.
Blood Types, Rh, and
Antibodies
There are 30 or more known antigens on the surface of blood cells.
These form
the blood groups or blood types. In a transfusion, the blood groups of
the
recipient and donor must be matched. If improperly matched, the
recipient's
immune system will produce antibodies causing clotting of the
transfused cells,
blocking circulation through capillaries and producing serious or even
fatal
results.
ABO blood types are determined by a gene, I (for isoagglutinin). There
are three
alleles, IA, IB and IO. Proteins produced by the A and B alleles are
antigenic.
Individuals with blood type A have the A antigen on the surface of
their red
blood cells, and antibodies to type B blood in their plasma. People
with blood
type B have the B antigen on their blood cells and antibodies against
type A in
their plasma. Individuals with type AB blood produce have antigens for
A and B
on their cell surfaces and no antibodies for either blood type A or B
in their
plasma. Type O individuals have no antigens on their red blood cells
but
antigens to both A and B are in their plasma.
People with type AB blood can receive blood of any type. Those with
type O blood
can donate to anyone. If a transfusion is made between an incompatible
donor and
recipient, the recipient's blood will undergo a cascade of events.
Reaction of
antigens on cells and antibodies in plasma will produce clumping that
clogs
capillaries, other cells burst, releasing hemoglobin that can
crystallize in the
kidney and lead to kidney failure.
The Rh (for the rhesus monkey in which it was discovered) blood group
is made up
of those Rh positive (Rh+) individuals who can make the Rh antigen and
those Rh
negative (Rh-) who cannot.
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) results from Rh incompatibility
between
an Rh- mother and Rh+ fetus. Rh+ blood from the fetus enters the
mother's system
during birth, causing her to produce Rh antibodies. The first child is
usually
not affected, however subsequent Rh+ fetuses will cause a massive
secondary
reaction of the maternal immune system. To prevent HDN, Rh- mothers are
given an
Rh antibody during the first pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus and all
subsequent Rh+
fetuses.
Organ Transplants and
Antibodies
Success of organ transplants and skin grafts requires a matching of
histocompatibility antigens that occur on all cells in the body.
Chromosome 6
contains a cluster of genes known as the human leukocyte antigen
complex (HLA)
that are critical to the outcome of such procedures. The array of HLA
alleles on
either copy of our chromosome 6 is known as a haplotype.
The large number of alleles involved mean no two individuals, even in a
family,
will have the same identical haplotype. Identical twins have a 100% HLA
match.
The best matches are going to occur within a family. The preference
order for
transplants is identical twin > sibling > parent >
unrelated donor.
Chances of an unrelated donor matching the recipient range between 1 in
100,000-200,000. Matches across racial or ethnic lines are often more
difficult.
When HLA types are matched survival of transplanted organs dramatically
increases.
Allergies and Disorders of
the Immune System
The immune system can overreact, causing allergies or autoimmune
diseases.
Likewise, a suppressed, absent, or destroyed immune system can also
result in
disease and death.
Allergies result from immune system hypersensitivity to weak antigens
that do
not cause an immune response in most people. Allergens, substances that
cause
allergies, include dust, molds, pollen, cat dander, certain foods, and
some
medicines (such as penicillin). Up to 10% of the US population suffer
from at
least one allergy.
After exposure to an allergen, some people make IgE antibodies as well
as B and
T memory cells. Subsequent exposure to the same allergen causes a
massive
secondary immune response that releases plenty of IgE antibodies. These
bind to
mast cells found usually in connective tissues surrounding blood
vessels. Mast
cells then release histamine, which starts the inflammatory response.
In some
individuals the histamine release causes life-threatening anaphylaxis
or
anaphylactic shock.
The immune system usually distinguishes "self" from "nonself".
The immune system learns the difference between cells of the body and
foreign
invaders. Autoimmune diseases result when the immune system attacks and
destroys
cells and tissues of the body. Juvenile diabetes, Grave's disease,
Multiple
sclerosis, Systemic lupus erythematosus, and Rheumatoid arthritis are
some of
the autoimmune diseases.
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a muscle weakness caused by destruction of
muscle-nerve connections. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is caused by
antibodies
attacking the myelin of nerve cells. Systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE)
has the
person forming a series of antibodies to their own tissues, such as
kidneys (the
leading cause of death in SLE patients) and the DNA in their own
cellular
nuclei. In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the immune system
attacks
connective tissues and major organs of the body. Rheumatoid Arthritis;
sufferers
have damage to their joints. Some evidence supports Type I diabetes as
an auto
immune disease. Juvenile diabetes results from the destruction of
insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
Immunodeficiency diseases result from the lack or failure of one or
more parts
of the immune system. Affected individuals are susceptible to diseases
that
normally would not bother most people. Genetic disorders, Hodgkin's
disease,
cancer chemotherapy, and radiation therapy can cause immunodeficiency
diseases.
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) results from a complete absence
of the
cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune responses. Affected
individuals
suffer from a series of seemingly minor infections and usually die at
an early
age. A small group suffering from adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency,
a type
of SCID, are undergoing gene therapy to provide them with normal copies
of the
defective gene.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is currently receiving the
most
attention among the immunodeficiency diseases. AIDS is a collection of
disorders
resulting from the destruction of T cells by the Human Immunodeficiency
Virus
(HIV), a retrovirus. When HIV replicates in the human T cells, it buds
from the
T cell plasma membrane encased in a coat derived from the T cell plasma
membrane. HIV selectively infects and kills T4 helper cells. The viral
RNA is
converted into DNA by the enzyme reverse transcriptase; this DNA can
become
incorporated into a human chromosome for months or years.
When the infected T cell is needed in the immune response, the viral
genes are
activated and the virus replicates, killing the infected cell and
producing a
new round on T4 cell infection. Gradually the number of T4 cells, the
master on
switch for the immune system, decline. The immune response grows less
powerful,
eventually failing. Premature death results from a series of rare
diseases (such
as fungal pneumonia and Kaposi's sarcoma, a rare cancer) that overwhelm
the body
and its compromised immune system.
Text ©1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, by M.J. Farabee, all rights
reserved.
Use for educational purposes is encouraged
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookIMMUN.html
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The Immune System
The Body's First Line of DefenseThe organs of the immune system, positioned throughout the body, are called lymphoid organs. The word "lymph" in Greek means a pure, clear stream--an appropriate description considering its appearance and purpose.
|
Lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes are the parts of the special circulatory system that carries lymph, a transparent fluid containing white blood cells, chiefly lymphocytes. |
| Lymph bathes the tissues of the body, and the lymphatic vessels collect and move it eventually back into the blood circulation. Lymph nodes dot the network of lymphatic vessels and provide meeting grounds for the immune system cells that defend against invaders. The spleen, at the upper left of the abdomen, is also a staging ground and a place where immune system cells confront foreign microbes. |
|
Pockets of lymphoid tissue are in many other locations throughout the body, such as the bone marrow and thymus. Tonsils, adenoids, Peyer's patches, and the appendix are also lymphoid tissues.
Both immune cells and foreign molecules enter the lymph nodes via blood vessels or lymphatic vessels. All immune cells exit the lymphatic system and eventually return to the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, lymphocytes are transported to tissues throughout the body, where they act as sentries on the lookout for foreign antigens.
How the Immune
System Works
Cells that will grow into the many types of more specialized cells that
circulate throughout the immune system are produced in the bone marrow.
This
nutrient-rich, spongy tissue is found in the center shafts of certain
long, flat
bones of the body, such as the bones of the pelvis. The cells most
relevant for
understanding vaccines are the lymphocytes, numbering close to one
trillion.
The two major classes of lymphocytes are B cells, which grow to maturity in the bone marrow, and T cells, which mature in the thymus, high in the chest behind the breastbone.
|
B cells produce antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymph streams and attach to foreign antigens to mark them for destruction by other immune cells. B cells are part of what is known as antibody-mediated or humoral immunity, so called because the antibodies circulate in blood and lymph, which the ancient Greeks called, the body's "humors." |
|
Certain T cells, which also patrol the blood and lymph for
foreign invaders,
can do more than mark the antigens; they attack and destroy diseased
cells they
recognize as foreign. T lymphocytes are responsible for cell-mediated
immunity
(or cellular immunity). T cells also orchestrate, regulate and
coordinate the
overall immune response. T cells depend on unique cell surface
molecules called
the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) to help them recognize
antigen
fragments.
|
Antibodies
The antibodies that B cells produce are basic templates with a special region that is highly specific to target a given antigen. Much like a car coming off a production line, the antibody's frame remains constant, but through chemical and cellular messages, the immune system selects a green sedan, a red convertible or a white truck to combat this particular invader. |
However, in contrast to cars, the variety of antibodies is very large. Different antibodies are destined for different purposes. Some coat the foreign invaders to make them attractive to the circulating scavenger cells, phagocytes, that will engulf an unwelcome microbe.
When some antibodies combine with antigens, they activate a cascade of nine proteins, known as complement, that have been circulating in inactive form in the blood. Complement forms a partnership with antibodies, once they have reacted with antigen, to help destroy foreign invaders and remove them from the body. Still other types of antibodies block viruses from entering cells.
T Cells
T cells have two major roles in immune defense. Regulatory T cells are
essential
for orchestrating the response of an elaborate system of different
types of
immune cells.
|
Helper T cells, for example, also known as CD4 positive T cells (CD4+ T cells), alert B cells to start making antibodies; they also can activate other T cells and immune system scavenger cells called macrophages and influence which type of antibody is produced. Certain T cells, called CD8 positive T cells (CD8+ T cells), can become killer cells that attack and destroy infected cells. The killer T cells are also called cytotoxic T cells or CTLs (cytotoxic lymphocytes). |
|
Immune system
process
Activation
of helper T cells
After it engulfs and processes an antigen, the macrophage displays the antigen fragments combined with a Class II MHC protein on the macrophage cell surface. The antigen-protein combination attracts a helper T cell, and promotes its activation.
Activation of
cytotoxic T cells
After a macrophage engulfs and processes an antigen, the macrophage displays the antigen fragments combined with a Class I MHC protein on the macrophage cell surface. A receptor on a circulating, resting cytotoxic T cell recognizes the antigen-protein complex and binds to it. The binding process and a helper T cell activate the cytotoxic T cell so that it can attack and destroy the diseased cell.
Activation of B cells
to make antibody
A B cell uses one of its receptors to bind to its matching antigen, which the B cell engulfs and processes. The B cell then displays a piece of the antigen, bound to a Class II MHC protein, on the cell surface. This whole complex then binds to an activated helper T cell. This binding process stimulates the transformation of the B cell into an antibody-secreting plasma cell.
*Link no longer available - from The National Institutes of health
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Lymphatic System and Immunity
......................................................
The
Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
http://www.isu.edu/departments/PTA/HO111/Lymph_Sys_Immunity_student_03.doc
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What
are some of the terms we need to know to understand immune function?
http://www.healthandage.com/html/min/afar/content/other9_2.htm
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Organ: Immune system
http://www.niaid.nih.gov/final/immun/immun.htm
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Primary Immunodeficiency: Complex Genetic Disorders?
http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/full/53/2/159
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Lymphatic
System Problems
Dr. Mo Lerner
http://www.dimensionsmagazine.com/dimtext/lerner/drmo74.html
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The Lymphatic System
SIGBIO
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph1.html
......................................................
Thoracic Duct
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph2.html
......................................................
Lymph Nodes
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph3.html
......................................................
Bone Marrow
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph4.html
......................................................
Thymus
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph5.html
......................................................
Spleen
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph6.html
......................................................
Lymph Nodes, A Closer Look
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph7.html
......................................................
Cell Mediated and Humoral Immunity
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/updated-lymphatic/lymph8.html
==============
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pages
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are just a sample
of the more than 140 pages now listed in our Wiki section. We are also
working
on hundred more. Come
and take a
stroll!
Lymphedema
Glossary
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=glossary:listing
Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema
Arm Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=arm_lymphedema
Leg Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=leg_lymphedema
Acute
Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=acute_lymphedema
The Lymphedema
Diet
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=the_lymphedema_diet
Exercises for
Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=exercises_for_lymphedema
Diuretics are
not for Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=diuretics_are_not_for_lymphedema
Lymphedema
People Online Support Groups
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_people_online_support_groups
Lipedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lipedema
Treatment
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=treatment
Lymphedema and
Pain Management
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_and_pain_management
Manual
Lymphatic Drainage (MLD) and Complex Decongestive Therapy (CDT)
Infections
Associated with Lymphedema
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=infections_associated_with_lymphedema
How to Treat a
Lymphedema Wound
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=how_to_treat_a_lymphedema_wound
Fungal
Infections Associated with Lymphe
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=fungal_infections_associated_with_lymphedema
Lymphedema in
Children
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_in_children
Lymphoscintigraphy
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphoscintigraphy
Magnetic
Resonance Imaging
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=magnetic_resonance_imaging
Extraperitoneal
para-aortic lymph node dissection (EPLND)
Axillary
node biopsy
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=axillary_node_biopsy
Sentinel Node
Biopsy
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=sentinel_node_biopsy
Small
Needle Biopsy - Fine Needle Aspiration
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=small_needle_biopsy
Magnetic
Resonance Imaging
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=magnetic_resonance_imaging
Lymphedema
Gene FOXC2
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_gene_foxc2
Lymphedema Gene VEGFC
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_gene_vegfc
Lymphedema Gene SOX18
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_gene_sox18
Lymphedema
and Pregnancy
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com/wiki/doku.php?id=lymphedema_and_pregnancy
Home page: Lymphedema People
http://www.lymphedemapeople.com
Page Updated: June 18, 2008